Chapter XXXIV: Magyar Művészeti Akadémia (Hungarian Academy of Arts)

Overview

Chapter XXXIV funds the Magyar Művészeti Akadémia (MMA — Hungarian Academy of Arts) and the bodies attached to its budget chapter. The 2026 envelope is 13,983.2 millió Ft of expenditure against zero own revenue — the entire chapter is a net call on the general taxpayer.

The MMA is not a ministry, a court, or a regulator. It is a köztestület — a public-law corporation — of artists, created in its present form by Act CIX of 2011 and named in Article X(3) of the Fundamental Law, which commits the state to protect the artistic freedom of the MMA alongside the scientific freedom of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.¹ It began in 1992 as a private association of twenty-two artists founded by the architect Imre Makovecz; the 2011 statute converted that voluntary body into a state-financed public corporation with a capped membership — at most 315 full members and 50 corresponding members — and a statutory claim on the budget.²

The chapter has three operating units and a block of chapter-managed appropriations:

• MMA Titkársága (MMA Secretariat) — 10,058.2 millió Ft, 72% of the chapter. The administrative apparatus of the academy and the line that carries the members’ life annuities.
• Magyar Építészeti Múzeum (Hungarian Museum of Architecture) — 950.5 millió Ft.
• MMA Kutatóintézet (MMA Research Institute) — 495.0 millió Ft.
• Fejezeti kezelésű előirányzatok (chapter-managed appropriations) — 2,479.5 millió Ft of grant programmes, programme transfers, and a named memorial-centre line.

The analytical interest of the chapter is concentrated in two places. The first is the Secretariat’s Ellátottak pénzbeli juttatásai (beneficiaries’ cash payments) line — 2,331.8 millió Ft — which is the members’ life annuity: a recurring monthly cash transfer to a closed, capped group of artists, paid for being a member of the academy. The second is the structure of grant programmes the chapter administers, where the MMA decides which artistic projects, societies, and companies receive state money. Both are subjective allocation of resources by an appointed body; neither is rights-protection, constitutional precondition, or a response to irreversible involuntary harm. The Museum and the Architecture line raise narrower questions and are treated separately.

Expenditure Analysis

MMA Titkársága — Személyi juttatások és járulékok (MMA Secretariat — personnel and contributions)

• Current allocation: 5,858.9 millió Ft (Személyi juttatások 5,367.8; Munkaadókat terhelő járulékok és szociális hozzájárulási adó 491.1)

• Classification: Phase-Out (2 years)

• Rationale: This is the payroll of the academy’s administrative apparatus — the staff who run the Secretariat, service the membership, and administer the grant programmes. The function the payroll supports is the operation of a state-financed artists’ corporation that decides which artists and projects receive public money. That is subjective allocation by an appointed body, not a rights-protection or constitutional function. Once the academy is returned to the voluntary status it held before 2011 — a private association of artists, funded by its members, by patrons, and by whatever audience values its work — the state payroll has no remaining rationale.

  The figure invites a comparison the chapter’s own tables make available. The Secretariat employs the people who administer 2,479.5 millió Ft of grant programmes and 2,331.8 millió Ft of life annuities. The administrative cost of moving roughly 4.8 milliárd Ft of transfers is itself nearly 5.9 milliárd Ft — the apparatus that decides who receives art money costs more than the largest single block of art money it hands out. This is the standing pattern of a discretionary allocator: the cost of running the allocation competes with the allocation, and grows with it, because every grant programme needs a committee, a call, an adjudication, and an audit.

• Transition mechanism: Severance-with-overlap. The protected party is the Secretariat’s permanent-contract staff. The payroll component is the full 5,858.9 millió Ft (personnel plus employer contributions); on a 24-month severance-with-overlap bridge, affected staff keep their state salary for two years and may take private-sector employment in that window, keeping both incomes.³ Administrative and clerical skills transfer readily to the private labour market; the household path is private-sector re-employment within the bridge. The non-payroll Secretariat costs (dologi kiadások, 1,465.0 millió Ft; egyéb működési, 2.0 millió Ft) end in the first budget cycle without severance. The two-year horizon is the severance window, not a contractual or cohort constraint — there is no protected counterparty whose rights require a longer glide.

• Affected groups: The Secretariat’s permanent staff (the chapter does not publish a headcount; on a sector-typical clerical-administrative salary the 5,367.8 millió Ft personnel line implies an order of roughly 60-110 full-time posts). Each keeps full salary for 24 months with the right to earn alongside it. The reform does not touch the artists’ freedom to associate, to exhibit, or to call themselves an academy — only the state financing of the administrative apparatus.

MMA Titkársága — Ellátottak pénzbeli juttatásai (MMA Secretariat — members’ life annuity)

• Current allocation: 2,331.8 millió Ft

• Classification: Phase-Out (cohort mortality, ~25 years)

• Rationale: This line is the életjáradék — a monthly life annuity paid to the full and corresponding members of the academy. As of the most recent published figures, a full member (rendes tag) receives 455,000 Ft a month and a corresponding member (levelező tag) 353,900 Ft a month; in one quarter of 2021 the academy paid annuities to 262 members.⁴ The annuity is not a pension in the contributory sense. No member paid contributions into a fund against it; it is a statutory entitlement to a recurring discretionary public transfer, conferred by membership of a capped corporation whose own members co-opt new members.

  Refuse the euphemism and the mechanism is plain. A full member’s 455,000 Ft monthly annuity is roughly 5.46 millió Ft a year, paid for life, for holding a seat in an academy. Set that against the worker who funds it. The 2026 budget context places the median gross monthly wage in the region of 540,000 Ft;⁵ a worker at that wage pays 15% SZJA and 18.5% employee TB-járulék on the gross, and the employer pays 13% SzocHo on top before the wage is even quoted. Out of every 100 Ft of what it costs to employ that worker, roughly 37 Ft reaches the state before a forint of take-home is spent; ÁFA at 27% on most of what is then spent takes another 13-14 Ft of the original 100; excise on fuel, energy, and the rest adds more on those categories. The cumulative state take from full employer compensation sits in the 55-60% range. A single full member’s annual annuity is what the state collects in SZJA from several median earners working a full year. The annuity is universalist in branding — recognition of artistic merit — and concentrated in incidence: a capped group of at most 365 people, funded by the broad wedge on every Hungarian payslip.

  Whether an artist’s life work merits recognition is a judgement no budget can make and this analysis does not attempt. The point is narrower and it is about the mechanism: recognition financed by compulsory transfer, allocated by a self-co-opting body, is subjective allocation by appointed officeholders. A private academy of artists is free to honour its members, to raise an endowment, to pay annuities from it, and to decide membership by whatever standard it chooses. What the framework does not recognise is the statutory claim on the general taxpayer that funds the honour.

• Transition mechanism: Cohort mortality. The protected party is the current cohort of annuity recipients — people who, in good faith, arranged the later part of their lives around a transfer the state promised them. Their reliance is real and the framework protects it: every current recipient keeps the annuity for life. The reform stops new entry — once the academy returns to voluntary status, no new member acquires a state-funded annuity — and the line then falls as the existing cohort ages out. The recipients are artists of senior standing; on actuarial mortality the line declines steadily and is substantially gone within about 25 years, fully so thereafter. No active bridge is needed beyond honouring the existing entitlements; the schedule follows mortality, not a policy decision. A voluntary successor academy may, of course, choose to fund annuities for its own members from its own resources — that is its affair and outside the budget.

• Affected groups: Approximately 262 current annuity recipients, who are protected in full for life. No future cohort of artists acquires the state-funded annuity; an artist elected to a voluntary successor academy after the reform receives whatever that body funds from voluntary resources, not a budget line.

MMA Titkársága — Dologi kiadások és egyéb működési kiadások (MMA Secretariat — operating and other operating costs)

• Current allocation: 1,467.0 millió Ft (Dologi kiadások 1,465.0; Egyéb működési célú kiadások 2.0)
• Classification: Immediate Cut
• Rationale: Non-payroll operating cost of the Secretariat — materials, utilities, services. It supports the same administrative apparatus phased out above; with no contract counterparty whose rights require a run-off, the operating cost ends in the first budget cycle. In-flight supplier contracts are honoured through ordinary contract run-off as they expire, not through a budget glide path.
• Transition mechanism: Eliminate in the 2026 cycle. Existing service contracts run to their term and are not renewed.
• Affected groups: Suppliers of routine administrative goods and services to the Secretariat; the loss is the non-renewal of a contract, not the breach of one.

MMA Titkársága — Beruházások (MMA Secretariat — capital investment)

• Current allocation: 400.0 millió Ft
• Classification: Immediate Cut
• Rationale: Capital investment in the administrative apparatus of a body whose state financing is being wound down. Funding new capital into an apparatus on a two-year phase-out is the soft-budget pattern in miniature — capital allocated by administrative decision rather than by a test of whether the use earns its cost. With the Secretariat phasing out, the investment has no remaining purpose.
• Transition mechanism: Eliminate in the 2026 cycle. Capital procurement not yet contracted is cancelled; assets already held transfer to the state property pool on wind-down.
• Affected groups: Suppliers of capital goods to the Secretariat; no contracted commitment is breached.

Magyar Építészeti Múzeum (Hungarian Museum of Architecture)

• Current allocation: 950.5 millió Ft (Személyi juttatások 658.3; Munkaadókat terhelő járulékok 90.7; Dologi kiadások 181.5; Beruházások 20.0)

• Classification: Nominal Freeze

• Rationale: The Museum of Architecture is a collecting institution — it holds and conserves the documentary record of Hungarian architecture (drawings, plans, models, archives). A conservation archive is a bounded, self-limiting mandate of a different character from the academy’s grant-making and annuity functions: the question is not whether the state should subjectively allocate resources among competing artists, but whether a physical collection already in public hands is conserved. The collection’s existence is not itself a reason for tax financing — museums can and do operate on admission revenue, membership, endowment, and donation — but a custodial archive cannot responsibly be cut to zero in a single cycle without risking irreversible loss of material, and the museum currently records no own revenue at all, so there is no fee base to scale up against in one year.

  The honest classification is therefore a freeze, not a cut: hold the nominal allocation and require the museum to develop admission, reproduction-fee, membership, and sponsorship revenue against the frozen line. At 2-3% inflation, the freeze erodes the real allocation by roughly 20-25% over a decade, which is the period over which a voluntary-revenue base can realistically be built. The placement of the museum in the MMA chapter rather than under the general museums budget is an organisational accident of the 2011 statute; the freeze classification does not depend on it.

• Transition mechanism: Hold the 2026 nominal allocation flat in forward budgets. Direct the museum to publish an own-revenue development plan — admission, reproduction and licensing fees, membership, corporate sponsorship of conservation — and report own-revenue growth annually. Review for reclassification once the own-revenue share is established.

• Affected groups: The museum’s staff (no displacement under a freeze); architecture researchers and the public who use the collection (no service reduction; the conservation mandate continues).

MMA Kutatóintézet (MMA Research Institute)

• Current allocation: 495.0 millió Ft (Személyi juttatások 281.3; Munkaadókat terhelő járulékok 41.7; Dologi kiadások 162.0; Beruházások 10.0)
• Classification: Phase-Out (2 years)
• Rationale: The Research Institute conducts art-theory and methodology research under the academy’s direction. Research priority setting is precisely the case where the state cannot aggregate the dispersed knowledge that would tell it which questions are worth pursuing — there is no price signal on the value of one art-theory research programme over another, and the institute’s agenda is set by the parent academy rather than by scholars competing for funding on the merits of proposals. The function is not rights-protection or a constitutional precondition; it is state-directed research attached to a discretionary cultural body. Art-theory and architectural-history scholarship is properly carried out in universities, where it competes for students, for peer-reviewed publication, and for research funding on the merits — not in a captive institute of an academy.
• Transition mechanism: Severance-with-overlap, 24 months. The payroll component is 323.0 millió Ft (personnel 281.3 plus employer contributions 41.7). Affected researchers keep their state salary for two years and may take university or private posts within that window, keeping both incomes; academic and research skills transfer directly to higher education. The non-payroll cost — dologi kiadások 162.0 millió Ft and beruházások 10.0 millió Ft — ends in the first budget cycle. The institute’s library, archives, and any unfinished research outputs transfer to a university or to the national library system rather than being lost.
• Affected groups: The institute’s research staff (the chapter publishes no headcount; the 281.3 millió Ft personnel line implies an order of roughly 25-45 posts at a sector-typical academic salary). Each is protected by 24 months of severance-with-overlap; the household path is re-employment in higher education or private research.

Fejezeti kezelésű előirányzatok — Országos művészeti társaságok, szövetségek támogatása (chapter-managed — support for national artistic societies and associations)

• Current allocation: 99.0 millió Ft
• Classification: Immediate Cut
• Rationale: A transfer to artistic societies and associations — private membership bodies whose members could fund their own associations. This is the textbook concentrated-benefit, diffuse-cost line: the benefit accrues to the organised membership of named societies, the cost is spread across every taxpayer, and the societies acquire a structural interest in the line’s preservation independent of what the activity is worth to anyone outside the membership. Artistic societies are voluntary associations; the classical-liberal frame recognises the freedom to form them and finance them, not a claim on the general taxpayer to do so.
• Transition mechanism: Eliminate in the 2026 cycle. Societies fund their activity from membership dues, patron support, and earned income, as voluntary associations in every other field do.
• Affected groups: The member artists of the recipient societies, who would fund their own associations or scale activity to what members and patrons will support.

Fejezeti kezelésű előirányzatok — Művészeti programok és gazdasági társaságok kulturális feladatainak támogatása (chapter-managed — support for artistic programmes and cultural tasks of business entities)

• Current allocation: 1,893.4 millió Ft (működési 1,877.4; felhalmozási 16.0)
• Classification: Immediate Cut
• Rationale: The largest grant block in the chapter — a discretionary fund from which the academy supports artistic programmes and the “cultural tasks” of business entities. This is subjective allocation by appointed officeholders in its clearest form: an appointed body decides which programmes and which companies’ cultural activities receive public money, with no price signal disciplining the choice and no test the recipients had to meet other than the academy’s judgement. A programme worth staging can be financed by ticket revenue, by sponsorship, by the patrons and audiences who value it; a company’s “cultural task” is, if commercially worthwhile, part of its own business case, and if not, is not a charge the general taxpayer should carry. The line concentrates a decision power — who in Hungarian artistic life receives state money — in one appointed institution. Removing the line does not remove the art; it removes the channel through which one body’s preferences are financed by compulsory transfer.
• Transition mechanism: Eliminate in the 2026 cycle. Grant commitments already contracted for performances or projects in train run to their contracted term and are not renewed; no new calls are issued. Programmes that command an audience continue on earned and voluntary revenue.
• Affected groups: Artists, ensembles, and companies that have received MMA programme grants. The displacement is the loss of one funding channel; for work that commands an audience or a sponsor, the channel is replaceable. The reform does not reduce the total resources available to Hungarian art — it stops routing a slice of them through an appointed allocator and leaves them with the taxpayers who would otherwise have been taxed to fund the line.

Fejezeti kezelésű előirányzatok — Pályázati alapok (chapter-managed — grant funds)

• Current allocation: 270.0 millió Ft
• Classification: Immediate Cut
• Rationale: A general grant fund administered by the academy on a competitive-call basis. The competitive-call form does not change the underlying mechanism: an appointed committee scores applications against criteria it sets, and the calculation problem is unchanged — there is no market price on the value of one funded artwork against another, only an adjudicator’s judgement. The fund is small, but the size of the line is not a criterion; the principle that the state should not be a discretionary patron of the arts scales to a 270 millió Ft fund exactly as it does to a larger one.
• Transition mechanism: Eliminate in the 2026 cycle. In-flight grant awards are honoured to their contracted term; no new calls are issued.
• Affected groups: Applicant artists and projects, who would seek private patronage, sponsorship, or earned revenue.

Fejezeti kezelésű előirányzatok — Nemzetközi programok, konferenciák, nemzetközi tagdíjak (chapter-managed — international programmes, conferences, international membership fees)

• Current allocation: 81.9 millió Ft
• Classification: Immediate Cut
• Rationale: International conference participation and membership fees in international artistic bodies. These are the costs of the MMA’s own international activity as a corporation; with the academy returning to voluntary status, its international memberships and conference attendance are funded by the voluntary body from voluntary resources, as any private association funds its own external representation. There is no rights-protection or constitutional function here.
• Transition mechanism: Eliminate in the 2026 cycle. International membership commitments are settled to the end of the paid term and not renewed at state expense; a voluntary successor academy assumes whatever memberships it chooses to fund.
• Affected groups: The MMA as a corporation and the international bodies receiving its membership fees; no individual’s rights are affected.

Fejezeti kezelésű előirányzatok — MMA műemlékvédelmi beruházásai (chapter-managed — MMA heritage-protection investments)

• Current allocation: 30.0 millió Ft (felhalmozási)
• Classification: Nominal Freeze
• Rationale: Capital investment in the protection of listed heritage buildings. Protecting the physical fabric of listed monuments has a different character from the academy’s grant-making: a listed building is a unique, non-reproducible asset, and deferred conservation can cause irreversible loss of fabric. The line is small and bounded. However, the placement of a heritage-protection capital line inside the MMA chapter, rather than in the general cultural-heritage budget, is an artefact of the 2011 statute; the appropriate destination is consolidation of this line into the national monument-protection budget, where it is administered by the heritage authority on a conservation-need basis rather than by an artists’ academy. Pending that reorganisation, freeze the nominal allocation rather than cut it, so no listed-building conservation already scheduled is interrupted.
• Transition mechanism: Hold the 2026 nominal allocation flat; transfer administration of the line to the national heritage-protection budget at the next budget reorganisation. Real erosion at 2-3% inflation reduces the line’s real value by roughly 20-25% over a decade, an acceptable trajectory for a line awaiting consolidation.
• Affected groups: Conservation of specific listed buildings under MMA management; no interruption to scheduled work.

Fejezeti kezelésű előirányzatok — Makovecz Emlékközpont (chapter-managed — Makovecz Memorial Centre)

• Current allocation: 105.7 millió Ft
• Classification: Immediate Cut
• Rationale: A recurring operating transfer to a memorial centre dedicated to the architect Imre Makovecz, founder of the academy’s predecessor association. A memorial centre commemorating an architect is a cultural project like any other: it can be financed by the visitors who come to it, by a foundation endowed for the purpose, by the patrons and admirers of the architect’s work. A recurring claim on the general taxpayer to run a single named memorial is concentrated benefit financed by diffuse compulsory transfer — and the recurring, open-ended form is the feature that makes it a cut rather than a freeze: there is no bounded mandate here, only an annually renewed operating subsidy. Admirers of Makovecz’s architecture, of whom there are many, are well placed to endow the centre voluntarily.
• Transition mechanism: Eliminate in the 2026 cycle. The centre is offered for transfer to a foundation, a trust of Makovecz’s admirers and professional heirs, or a self-financing operating model on admission and donation revenue.
• Affected groups: The memorial centre’s operations and any staff it employs; visitors and admirers of Makovecz’s work, who can sustain the centre voluntarily if they value it.

Revenue Items

The chapter records no own revenue. The summary table reports 0,0 millió Ft of működési bevétel (operating revenue) and 0,0 millió Ft of felhalmozási bevétel (capital revenue) against 13,983.2 millió Ft of expenditure. The entire chapter is financed by transfer from general taxation; the balance line is −13,983.2 millió Ft.

The zero own-revenue figure is itself an analytical fact. The MMA charges nothing for the activity it carries out — it neither sells membership of the academy nor charges for the cultural goods it produces — and the Magyar Építészeti Múzeum records no admission or licensing revenue at all. A collecting museum operating with literally zero own income is unusual: museums elsewhere routinely cover a meaningful share of cost from admission, reproduction fees, membership, and sponsorship. The absence of any revenue base is part of why the museum is classified as a Nominal Freeze rather than an Immediate Cut: there is no fee income to scale up against in a single year, so the revenue base has to be built before the line can be reduced.

Chapter Summary

Classification	Count	Total (millió Ft)
Immediate Cut	7	4,317.0
Phase-Out	3	8,685.7
Nominal Freeze	2	980.5
Keep	0	0.0
Total	12	13,983.2

Revenue	Total (millió Ft)
Total chapter revenue	0.0

Key Observations

• The chapter funds an academy of artists, not a state function. The MMA is named in Article X(3) of the Fundamental Law, but a constitutional grant of protection for artistic freedom is a permission, not a funding mandate. Article X(3) commits the state to protect the academy’s artistic freedom; it does not require the state to finance the academy’s administration, annuities, or grant programmes from the general budget. The first-principle classification — subjective allocation of resources by an appointed body is not a legitimate tax-financed state function — stands, and the reform names the change: return the MMA to the voluntary-association status it held between 1992 and 2011, and amend or repeal Act CIX of 2011 accordingly. The Fundamental Law’s protection of artistic freedom is fully consistent with a voluntary academy; it is the budget claim, not the constitutional clause, that the reform removes.

• The administrative apparatus costs more than the largest transfer it administers. The Secretariat’s payroll (5,858.9 millió Ft) and operating cost (1,467.0 millió Ft) together — over 7.3 milliárd Ft — exceed the entire grant-programme block (2,479.5 millió Ft) and the annuity line (2,331.8 millió Ft) combined. This is the standing signature of a discretionary allocator: the cost of deciding who gets the money competes with the money itself. A line whose administrative overhead rivals its disbursements is not a cheap way to support art; it is an expensive way to direct it.

• The life annuity is a recurring discretionary transfer, not a contributory pension. The 2,331.8 millió Ft annuity line pays 455,000 Ft a month to a full member and 353,900 Ft to a corresponding member — for membership of a capped, self-co-opting academy. No member contributed to a fund against it. A full member’s annual annuity, roughly 5.46 millió Ft, is what the state collects in SZJA from several median earners working a full year. The reliance of the current ~262 recipients is real and is protected in full for life; what the reform removes is the acquisition of new state-funded annuities by future members.

• Within-class transfer. The annuity is branded as recognition of artistic merit — a universalist good. Its incidence is concentrated: at most 365 capped seats, funded by the broad payroll wedge on every Hungarian wage. The diagnostic is the standard one — a benefit conferred by membership of a small body, funded by general tax paid disproportionately by working-age earners. The wage-earner whose payroll wedge funds the line did not consent to it and has no path to the seat that draws it.

• A voluntary academy loses nothing the framework values. The artists who are members of the MMA remain free, after the reform, to associate, to elect members, to call themselves an academy, to honour their members, and to fund annuities and programmes from membership dues, endowment, patronage, and earned revenue. Hungary has a pre-2011 precedent for exactly this: the MMA itself operated as a private association of artists for nineteen years. The reform does not abolish the academy; it removes the academy from the budget.

Sources

Footnotes

1. Magyarország Alaptörvénye, X. cikk (3) bekezdés. (Fundamental Law of Hungary, Article X(3) — the state protects the scientific freedom of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the artistic freedom of the Hungarian Academy of Arts.) Constitutional Court decision 18/2014. (V. 30.) AB on the MMA’s membership rules. Alkotmánybíróság, 2014. https://www.alkotmanybirosag.hu/sajtomegjelenes/a-magyar-muveszeti-akademia-feleljen-meg-a-muveszeti-szabadsag-kovetelmenyenek/. ↩

2. 2011. évi CIX. törvény a Magyar Művészeti Akadémiáról (Act CIX of 2011 on the Hungarian Academy of Arts). Nemzeti Jogszabálytár. https://njt.hu/jogszabaly/2011-109-00-00. The 1992 founding by twenty-two artists led by Imre Makovecz, the 2011 conversion to köztestület status, and the membership caps (at most 315 full members, 50 corresponding members) per Magyar Művészeti Akadémia, Wikipédia, citing the Act. https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magyar_M%C5%B1v%C3%A9szeti_Akad%C3%A9mia.
   ↩

3. The severance-with-overlap bridge design draws on Reisman, G. (1996). Capitalism: A Treatise on Economics. Ottawa, IL: Jameson Books, on the economics of transition mechanics during institutional reform. ↩

4. MMA-tag életjáradék amounts: 455,000 Ft/month for rendes tagok (full members) and 353,900 Ft/month for levelező tagok (corresponding members), effective 1 January 2022; 262 recipients in the second quarter of 2021, total ~311.4 millió Ft paid that quarter. Szakszervezetek.hu, “Az MMA-tagok életjáradékát 455 ezer forintra emelik”. https://szakszervezetek.hu/dokumentumok/mibol-elunk/28210-az-mma-tagok-eletjaradekat-455-ezer-forintra-emelik. ↩

5. KSH (Hungarian Central Statistical Office), Keresetek — Bruttó átlagkereset adatok. 2025. https://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xstadat/xstadat_eves/i_qli012a.html. The 540,000 Ft figure is an approximation based on KSH bruttó átlagkereset (average gross earnings) data for 2024–2025; median earnings run somewhat below the mean, but the order of magnitude used here is consistent with KSH published ranges for the reference period. ↩